Takeover Mergers Acquisitions Case Study Of British Petroleum Commerce Essay

putsch fusions Acquisitions Case Study Of British Petroleum job EssayBP is single of the largest vertic onlyy integrated oil color color and assail companies in the world. The fraternitys operations primarily include the exploration and output signal of gas and jolting oil, as headspring as the commercialiseing and trading of ingrained gas, forcefulness, and natural gas liquids. BP has its headquarters in London, wholeed Kingdom and employs about 80,300 people.British Petroleum, which transform from a local oil familiarity named Anglo Persian form back in 1908 to a global efficiency group, is one of the worlds largest energy companies today, providing its customers with fuel for transportation, energy for heat and light, retail services and petrochemicals products for e actuallyday items. BP excelled exponentially in the past century and today it employs over 80,000 people and operates in over 100 countries worldwide.On 20th April, 2010, BP came across a belatedly w ater rig explosion in the gulf of Mexico which was ca phthisisd by what has been expound as the worst US ecological disaster ever, wiping more(prenominal) than $58 billion from the go withs value and causing its sh be price to drop rout more then half comp atomic number 18d to the value before the explosion.M either analysts be saying that this could trigger a coup detat of the cable by one of its big competitors such as Exxon Mobil, Shell or even Petromainland China.In this report, we forget discuss the factors and reasons which stomach impression in a putsch of all order a coherent with the rattling real disadvantages which a company whitethorn face if they do an achievement, including those special to an acquisition of BP at this m.What is Merger and Acquisition stands for?The terminal figure Merger Acquisition or coup detat refers to the expectation of merged strategy, embodied finance and management dealing with the buying, selling and corporate trust of different companies that fundament aid, finance, or help a growing company in a hold backn patience grow rapidly without having to draw other business entity.Takeovers and mergers are too the reason why todays corporate landscape is a maze of conglomerations. Insurance companies pop rancid birth breakfast cereal grass makers, shopping mall outlets are part of military manufacturing groups, and movie studios own airlines, all because of mergers and acquisitions.Although often used synonymously, the terms merger and acquisition inculpate slightly different things.MergerA merger happens when two dissipateds jibe to go forward as a single untested company rather than remain separately owned and operated. It faecal matter be exposit as the mutually agreed decision for joint ownership amongst organizations.When two companies merge, the boards of directors (or the owners, if it is a one-on-onely held company) come to an agreement. The original companies cease to exist, a nd a new company forms, combining the personnel and assets of the merging companies. Like any business deal, this can be straightforward, or incredibly complex. The key is that twain companies have agreed to the merge.AcquisitionWhen one company takes over another and clearly establishes itself as the new owner, the purchase is called an acquisition. From a legal distri notwithstandingor point of view, the target company ceases to exist, the buyer swallows the business and the buyers stock continues to be traded. unpeaceful Takeover A hostile coup detat is an acquisition in which the company existence purchased doesnt want to be purchased, or doesnt want to be purchased by the grouchy buyer that is making a bid. The buyer has to put one across interpret of the target company and force them to agree to the sale.Both acquisitions and mergers typically select the managers of one organization exerting strategical influence over the other.Reasons for a TakeoverThere are differen t reasons for developing through a takeover activity. The primary reason being that acquiring firms seek improved financial performance. Another study reason is the need to keep up with the ever-changing environment and to gain opportunities of market fruit more quickly than through internal means. Following gives a brief account for the conventional reasons of a takeover.Speed of En decideSpeed of entry is one of the reasons for a takeover because products and markets nowadays are changing so rapidly that acquisition befits the whole mode to successfully enter a market, since the process of internal growing is too slow and when speed is important, acquisition is more believably to be used. most(prenominal) acquisitions are consummated relatively quickly, whereas internal development of new products or services normally takes many months or age. Acquisition may allow the acquiring firm to realize revenue earlier, achieve economies faster, and beat a capitaler market a ppropriate. When entry occurs through internal development, a cristal or more is often required to fine-tune the business to achieve the profitability of established competitorsEconomies of ScaleEconomies of weighing machine is an economic term describing a business model where the long-run average court submit declines as production add-ons, or in a simple eccentric explaining the principal, where a manufacturing company saves money as it make waters eminenter(prenominal) quantities of its product, as in all business areas, the more you buy, the more you save. Economies of scale is a long run concept and refers to reductions in unit cost as the sizing of a facility and the usage levels of other inputs increase.This refers to the fact that the company later takeover can often reduce its laid cost by removing duplicate departments or operations, lowering the costs of the company relative to the corresponding revenue stream, thus increasing profit margins.An example is that of a offstage soft drinks manufacturer. The more orders that the manufacturer receives, the more savings it makes, as it leave alone in rise get cheaper prices for the materials it needs to produce its drinks (e.g. plastic, aluminium, sugar) as it leave alone be buying them in larger quantities and receiving discounts, the manufacturing company in deflect would give its customers cheaper prices for the more orders for drinks they make for this very reason, as they will gain the discounts, they can pass a saving onto their customers, making themselves stronger, a more respected company from its suppliers as it is buying in high volumes and its disturbance becomes high. All these factors contri alonee to the attains of economies of scale..Why Economies of Scale Happen An In abstruseness LookCorporations incur meliorate costs when buying heavy machinery, buildings, or other large purchases. A firm cost is called fixed because when production increases in the short run, new buildings and machines are not immediately needed. Because fixed costs are not tied to production, firms have an incentive to produce as much as possible (assuming they can sell their product). Intuitively, a large factory should produce a large number of units to smear its fixed cost per unit. Say that an automobile factory costs 1 zillion dollars. If it only produces metre cars, then its Fixed Cost Per Unit is 1 million dollars split up by 1000 cars, or $1000/Car.If the factory produces 8000 cars, however, its Fixed Cost Per Unit is 1 million dollars divided by 8000 cars, or $125 per car. By producing 7000 more cars, the firm gets an 88% fixed cost reduction per car.This graph illustrates that increased production reduces fixed costs per unit.Figure 1With fewer fixed costs per unit, firms can afford to lower per unit prices. If fixed costs are very significant to a particular firms perseverance, then firms who atomic pile produce efficiently can cut costs, extract revenues, lower prices, and therefore capture market parcel. Higher market share and higher revenues mean more money to spend on machinery, and expand the firm. This in turn allows further cost cutting, higher production, and the development of better products. In the long run, firms which effectively mass produce take over industries dominated by high fixed costs.Figure 2Financial marketsFinancial markets may provide conditions that make acquisitions. If the share value or price/earnings (P/E) ratio of a company is high, it may see the opportunity to acquire a firm with a low share value or P/E ratio. Indeed, this is a major stimulus for the more opportunistic acquisitive companies. An uttermost(prenominal) example is asset stripping, where the main indigence is short-term gain by buying up undervalued assets and disposing of them piecemeal.Eliminating CompetitionA buyer company, when absorbs a major competitor, eliminates the major competition and thus increases it revenue or market sha re. This motive of takeover comes into play when companies want to increase their market power which heads in an increased share value and overall monopoly. synergismSynergy is the emf additional value from combining two firms. It is probably the most widely used and misused rationale for takeovers.Operating SynergyOperating synergies are those synergies that allow firms to increase their operating income, increase growth or both. useable synergy is deemed to be the main motive of the takeover when the bidder takes over a target in the like industry. We would categorize operating synergies into four types.1. Economies of scale that may turn off from the takeover, allowing the combined firm to become more cost-efficient and gainful.2. Greater pricing power from reduced competition and higher market share, which should result in higher margins and operating income.3. Combination of different practicable strengths, as would be the case when a firm with strong merchandising sk ills acquires a firm with a good product line.4. Higher growth in new or existing markets, arising from the combination of the two firms. This would be case when a UK consumer products firm acquires an emerging market firm, with an established dissemination network and brand name recognition, and uses these strengths to increase sales of its products.Operating synergies can affect margins and growth, and through these the value of the firms involved in the takeover.Financial SynergyWith financial synergies, the payoff can take the form of either higher cash flows or a lower cost of capital (discount rate). include are the following.1. A combination of a firm with profusion cash, (and circumscribed project opportunities) and a firm with high-return projects (and limited cash) can yield a payoff in terms of higher value for the combined firm. The increase in value comes from the projects that were taken with the excess cash that otherwise would not have been taken. This synergy is likely to show up most often when large firms acquire smaller firms, or when publicly traded firms acquire private businesses.2. Debt capacity can increase, because when two firms combine, their earnings and cash flows may become more stable and predictable. This, in turn, allows them to borrow more than they could have as individual entities, which creates a tax benefit for the combined firm. This tax benefit can take the form of either higher cash flows or a lower cost of capital for the combined firm.3. Tax benefits can arise either from the acquisition taking advantage of tax laws or from the use of net operating losses to shelter income. Thus, a profitable firm that acquires a money-losing firm may be able to use the net operating losses of the latter to reduce its tax burden. Alternatively, a firm that is able to increase its depreciation charges after(prenominal) an acquisition will save in taxes and increase its value.DiversificationCompanies takeover different product line companies to diversify their product or service range and to harbor themselves against downturns in the core markets. This calls for a very well thought and limited policy keeping in mind the future steps and goals of a company. Moreover, can genuinely help if there is a down settle in the core market and company shares of a particular product.Disadvantages of a TakeoverThe reasons for takeover are kept under account while targeting a company, but calculating the disadvantages associated with it are analysed with more precision and taking all situations under consideration. Companies mostly come up with the following disadvantages while acquiring other companiesCosts of mergers and acquisitionsMergers and acquisitions can be costly due to the high legal expenses, and the cost of acquiring a new company that may not be profitable in the short run. This is why a merger or acquisition may be more of strategic corporate decision than a tactical maneuver. Moreover, if a poison table t unknowingly emerges after a sudden acquisition of another companys shares, this could gift the acquisition approach very expensive and/or redundant. Legal expenses short-term opportunity cost Cost of takeover Potential devaluation of equity intangible asset costsMA activity can also be exacerbated by the short-term cost of opportunity or opportunity cost. This is the cost incurred when the same amount of investiture could be placed elsewhere for a higher financial return. Sometimes this cost does not prevent or discourage the acquisition because projected long-term financial benefits outweigh that of the short-term cost.Consumer and shareowner drawbacksIn some cases, acquisitions may not only disadvantage the shareholders but consumers as well. In both cases, this may happen when the newly formed company becomes a large oligopoly or monopoly. Moreover, when higher pricing power emerges from reduced competition, consumers may be financially disadvantaged. Some of the potential disadvantages face consumers in regard to mergers are the following. Increase in cost to consumers fall corporate performance and/or services Potentially take down industry innovation Suppression of competing businesses Decline in equity pricing and investment valueShareholders may also be disadvantaged by corporate leadership if it becomes too content or complacent with its market positioning. In other words, when takeover activity reduces industry competition and produces a efficacious and influential corporate entity, that company may suffer from non-competitive stimulus and lowered share prices. Lower share prices and equity valuations may also arise from the merger itself being a short-term disadvantage to the company.Effects on managementA study published in the July/August 2008 yield of the Journal of Business Strategy suggests that mergers and acquisitions destroy leadership continuity in target companies top management teams for at least a decade following a deal. The study found that target companies get 21 percent of their executives each year for at least 10 years following an acquisition more than double the turnover experienced in non-merged firms. If the businesses of the acquired and acquiring companies overlap, then such turnover is to be expected in other words, there can only be one CEO, CFO, etc at a time.Wages SettlementThis could also be a conundrum if the acquiring company gives less wages to its employees then the acquired company. This may result in overpaying the new employees of acquired company or increasing the wages of its earlier employees. This can really unsettle the budget and administration of the company.REASONS AND DISADVANTAGES OF TAKING all over BRITISH PETROLEUMThe idea of BP being taken over by anyone would have sounded crazy before the gulf of Mexico disaster, but it is now nice commonplace to suggest that the UK oil major might even fall into the hands of rivals like Exxon Mobil, Shell or even Petrochina.T he about turn has been extraordinary. Before its money and reputation began bleeding away in the disconnectedness of Mexico, the oil giant was considered the safest of blue chip companies, because its debts were so low and its income so high.bits per second failure to stop an oil leak from spewing millions of gallons of crude into the disconnect of Mexico may leave the biggest oil and gas producer in the U.S. in a fight to stay independent.BP FactsClean-upCost to date $3.1bn approxEscrow account see $20bnSharesShare price on 20 April (before leak began) 656pShare price lowest point (on 25 June) 296p (55% fall)2009 profits 10bn2010 dividend 1.8bn in Q1 Q2-4 cancelled, saving 5.4bnDebt derive debts 17bn, of which 4.9 due by end-20112009 cashflow 21bnCredit ratings A2/A (Moodys/SP)Credit default swap spread (5 years) 4.1% per annumStrategic investorsMarket capitalisation 65bn (at 345p current share price)capital of Kuwait shareholding 1.75%China shareholding 1.1%(Data Bloomberg as o f 6 July 2010)Reasons for TakeoverIn addition to being the largest oil and gas producer in the U.S, BP is the biggest operator in the disconnect of Mexico, where it holds more than 500 leases and pumps 450,000 barrels of oil a day. The company plans 10 projects in the Gulf during the next five years, more than other regions of the world, correspond to a BP presentation. A takeover of BP will result in the acquisition of all these projects ultimately increasing the growth of the acquiring company.A takeover by Anglo-Dutch shell looks likely because synergies of $9bn had been estimated by former BP chief master copy Browne and it is revealed that merger of these companies were tried before in 1995 and 2004. These synergies will give the combined company the power to take advantage from economies of scale and great pricing power.If Exxon Mobil acquires BP that would be a combination of the first and second biggest gas producers in the US which will result in the monopoly of the whole oil market in the hands of the acquirer. If this happens, the joined company can ordinate the stock market and gain other advantages as well.Chinese oil giant Petrochina which is not a major oil producer but an avid consumer of oil can divert scarce oil supplies of BP towards china to satisfy its needs rather than those of the west. This will not only give Petrochina access to BPs international oil and gas reserves, but also the expertise and latest technology which will result in higher value and growth of the combined company.The takeover will eliminate a fierce competition between the oil giants of the world as the acquiring company will absorb a major competitor in the form of BP. Thus increasing overall market power and share value.DisadvantagesThe huge and indeterminate cost of the oil spill violent death, as well as damages, fines and compensation analysts forecast of the cash cost to BP have ranged up to about $40 bn, could spiral into tens of billions.Political EffectsTe chnically any of Exxon Mobil, Shell or Petrochina can afford to buy BP, but in an industry which is already fraught with regulatory and political risk, it is a tight to cope up with all the arising situations.There is already a statutory limit under US law for oil spill costs of a mere $75m, but BP long ago waived this limit, as secrecy behind it would have been politically untenable.The oil firm could take more active steps to limit its obligation, for instance through a discriminating bankruptcy of its US business.But this would almost certainly be uneatable to the companys board, as it would enrage US politicians, including President Barack Obama, and probably cut off the entire US market to BP.So the political reality is that BPs liability in the Gulf of Mexico remains unlimited, and this continues to weigh down the companys share price.A takeover of BP in such a scenario will result in an unlimited liability for the acquiring company. Moreover, it may probably shortcut fro m the U.S market where BP is the biggest oil and gas provider.Environmental EffectsThe environmental threats after Mexico oil spills are still in account and acquiring companies will feel the effects of it for a long time. The cost of oil cleanup is indeterminate and in case of an acquisition, those cleanups and its effects will become the liability of the acquiring company and if they fail to clear them in a particular set of time, then the acquired company can feel the heat as well.Legal EffectsThe damages, fines and compensation forecasts of the spill are very ill-defined and there is no exact account of the litigations which BP will face. BP has crossed the $368 million mark till now in paying companies and individuals as a result of after-effects of the oil spill. Still there is a long way to go and no one wants to pay an unquantifiable liability.Other DisadvantagesIf Shell makes a move, then it will ace serious competition issues that would force divestments in Europe and the US. A combined company will be very difficult to manage and to sustain growth.Petrochina will be in a risk of overpaying the employees of BP as labour is cheap in Chinese companies and this could really effect the management and workforce from top to bottom.In case of Exxon Mobil, Most combinations of assets would have to be downsized for competition reasons. The overlapping management will lose their jobs and the old management will have to fit in the tog of the BP management and become familiar with their systems and ways which will take time and incur cost.The costs of oil projects are set to soar as governments insist on tougher environmental safety standards in the wake of the spill. already the Kazakhstan energy ministry has forced Shell to tighten up plans at its Kashagan development, gist that the current $136bn budget dedicated for the project is likely to be busted. The result could be that smaller companies, that dont have market values in excess of $100bn might pull out of deep-water activities. Only the big boys of the industry would remain in the waters.ConclusionThere are many likely motives to takeover BP but it carries a lot of dips and drops. If a buyer does try to overcome all these enormous hurdles, it would still need to agree a deal. At the moment, there is no sign of BP to surrender. Takeover talks are likely to keep swirling, but the chances are that BP will emerge with its liberty intact.

Ofdm Techniques In Satellite Communications

Ofdm Techniques In transmit communicationsThe concept of Orthogonal oftenness Division Multiplexing was first proposed in 1960 and essential in the 70s .All phonepass flexion schemes practice session single pallbeargonr by adjusting frequency, frame or amplitude .As digital infection uses high Bandwidth ( info rates), the duration of min information becomes smaller. The organization becomes to a greater extent vulnerable to loss of information from relish noise,signal reflections and diametrical impairments. As the bandwidth used by a single carrier system, the vulnerability to hinderance from other continuous signal sources become greater. irreverent FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXINGModulation-A mapping of the information on changes in the carrier phase, frequency or amplitude or combination.Multiplexing-Method of sharing a bandwidth with other commutative selective information pass ons.OFDM is a combination of both multiplexing and changeover. OFDM is a special case of FDM . In OFDM the signal is first split into independent carriers, modulated by data and then re-multiplexed to create a OFDM carrier. This crowd out be done by using different conversion/demodulation techniques.The FDM systems requires a guard band between modulated subcarriers to prevent the spectrum of one subcarrier from fussy with another and not using bandwidth efficiently as in fig(i).If the FDM system uses a set of subcarriers that are nonmaterial to separately other. The use of orthogonal subcarriers would allow the subcarriers spectra to overlap,thus increasing spectral efficiency. As long as perpendicularity is chief(prenominal)tained, it is possible to recover the individual subcarriers signals despite their overlapping spectrums..Fig(1) General type of an FDM scheme with guard bands.Fig(2) Orthogonal FDM, eliminating the guard bands.OFDM nooky be implement using the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). The sinusoids of the DFT form an orthogonal reason set, a nd a signal in the vector space of the DFT can be delineated as a linear combination of the orthogonal sinusoids. iodin go steady of the DFT is that the convert essentially correlates its input signal with each of the sinusoidal basis functions. The OFDM signal can be a baseband signal or a band pass signal. For wired systems, due to the limited bandwidth of the wires, baseband OFDM signals are genetical. For radiocommunication communications, such as wireless topical anaesthetic area ne dickensrk (WLAN) condition by IEEE 802.11a standard OFDM signal frequency bands are allocated in the RF frequency band. In this case, OFDM signals are generated in baseband first and up-converted to the RF band for transmission.Mathematically, the OFDM signal using the DFT/IDFT pair would be as shown 4DFTX(k)=n=0to(N-1) x(n) exp(-j2nk/N)IDFTx(k)=(1/N) n=0to(N-1) X(n) exp(j2nk/N)Figure (3) General block diagram of OFDMMULTIPATH CARRIERSAs OFDM uses Multipath carriers they cause two problemsI ntersymbol Interference-This occurs when the received OFDM is distorted by the previously transmitted OFDM symbol.Where as in single carrier the interfere is due to several other symbols instead of just the previous symbol. Intersymbol Interference can be remove by using guard interval.Intrasymbol Interference-This occurs due to the interference amongst a devoted OFDM symbols own subcarriers.Fig(4) Performance evaluation of motley modulation techniques with OFDMOFDM ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGESOFDM offers many an(prenominal) advantages over single-carrier modulations 1The maximum signaling rate (Nyquist rate) for a apt(p) channel can be approached without the use of sharp cutoff filters.It elongates the symbol outcome so that the signal is more robust a benefitst inter symbol interference caused by channel dispersions and multipath interference.It divides the entire frequency band into narrow bands so that it is less sensitive to wide-band impulse noise and fast channel fades .The printing of a slow frequency-selective fade is a separate complex make headway on each sub-band signal and it can be removed by simply multiplying the signal by the conjugate of the complex gain-that is, equalization can be easily done by a one-tap equalizer.Different modulation formats and data rates can be used on different subcarriers depending on the noise level of individual sub-bands (the symbol periods are unploughed the same). In serial transmission, certain types of noise (such as time variable tone interference) may cause an entire system to fail the jibe OFDM system can avoid this problem by adaptively reducing the data rate of the affected sub-bands or dropping them.OFDM can be enforced digitally using an inverse discrete Fourier transform and discrete Fourier transform (IDFT/DFT) pair (via the efficient fast algorithm IFFT/FFT pair), which greatly reduces the system complexity.OFDM is ground on a parallel data transmission scheme that reduces the printing of multipath fading and makes the use of complex equalizers unnecessary.OFDM achieves high spectral efficiency by allowing the sub-carriers to overlap in the frequency domain. The sub-carriers are made orthogonal to each other therefore there is no Inter-Carrier Interference. If the number of sub-carriers in N, the natural bandwidth required is BW add=(N+1)/Ts. For large values of N, the total bandwidth required can be approximated as BWtotal=(N)/Ts. On the other hand, the bandwidth required for single carrier transmission of the same data is BWtotal=(2N)/Ts. Thus we achieve a spectral gain of nearly 100% in OFDM compared to the single carrier transmission case.OFDM besides have DISADVANTAGES over single carrier modulation systemsThe OFDM signal has a noise like amplitude with a very large changing range, therefore it requires RF source amplifiers with a high peak to modal(a) power ratio.It is more sensitive to carrier frequency offset and shoot a line than single carrier syst ems are due to leakage of the DFT.High predisposition to synchronization errors.Nonlinear effects generated by the power amplifier may tuck inter carrier interference and thus destroy the orthogonality.Larger sidelobes may result in sensitivity to frequency.APPLICATIONS OF OFDMWireless LAN ApplicationsHIPERLAN/2HIPERLAN/2 is a Wireless LAN application defined by the ETSI. HIPERLAN/2 handles data rates between 6-54 Mbit/s. HIPERLAN/2 provides a DLC layer on top of which an IP based broadband network can be implemented. The Physical layer of HIPERLAN/2 is based on the Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) modulation scheme. The Numerical Values of OFDM parameters in HIPERLAN are given belowParameterValueSampling rate fs=1/T20 MHzSymbol part duration TU64*T 3,2 sCyclic prefix duration TCP16*T, 0,8 s (mandatory) 8*T, 0,4 s (optional)Symbol interval TS80*T, 4,0 s (TU+TCP) 72*T, 3,6 s (TU+TCP)Number of data sub-carriers NSD48Number of pilot sub-carriers NSP4Sub-carrier spac ing f0.3125 MHz (1/TU) lay between the two outmost sub-carriers16.25 MHz (NST*f)IEEE 802.11The IEEE 802.11 committee has a standard similar to the HIPERLAN. Its OFDM parameters are as shown belowData reckon6,9,12,18,24,36,48,54 MbpsModulationBPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM, 64 QAMCoding Rate1/2, 2/3,3/4No of Sub-Carriers52No of pilots4OFDM Symbol Duration4 usGuard Interval800 nsSub-Carrier Spacing312.5 kHz3 dB bandwidth16.56 MHzChannel Spacing20 MHzSatellite Communication applicationsDigital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)Digital Audio Broadcasting is a new multimedia system technology, with a fountainhead-grounded sound quality and better spectrum efficiency. The DAB system samples audio at a sample rate of 48 kHz and a steadiness of 22 bits. Then the data is compressed to between 32 and 384 kbps. A rate convolution code is used with constraint length 7. The total data rate is about 2.2 Mbps. The frame time is 24ms. QPSK modulation is performed at the transmitter. The advantage of using OFDM for DAB is that the OFDM suffers very little delay ranch and has high spectral efficiency.Digital image Broadcasting (DVB-T)Digital Video Broadcasting is an ETSI standard for broadcasting Digital Television over satellites, cables and by dint of wandering (wireless) transmission. Terrestrial DVB operates in either of 2 modes called 2k and 8k modes with 1705 carriers and 6817 carriers respectively. It uses QPSK, 16-QAM or 64-QAM subcarrier modulations. It as well uses pilot subcarrier for recovering amplitude and phase for coherent demodulationThe major use of OFDM can be observed when multiple techniques can be transmitted and received at the same time. This can be done with the assistant of MIMO OFDM. The transmitted signal will be received by various VSAT networks based on the corresponding frequencies. Further, processing of this signal and error corrections, the overlord signal is retrieved. For example, consider that a DAB, DVB and other geological information is received by various antennas as shown in the figure.NEWEST RESEARCH AND FUTURE TRENDS OF OFDMOne of the methods developed in the recent years is that the convolutional coding (CC) and trellis coded modulation (TCM) are combined with OFDM for a Rician fading channel according to the specifications given by the Iridium system. Here, the bit error rate (BER) performance of OFDM with 8-PSK and 16-QAM modulation techniques along with two different coding schemes are considered for a king of beasts satellite channel. Trellis coded OFDM gives the best performance compared to convolutional coded OFDM. The peak to average power ratio (PAPR) can be reduced approximately by 1.5 dB with the help of the partial transmit sequence technique (PTS). Later, some more look for and simulation results proved that the Turbo Coded (TC) OFDM performed better than CC or TCM with OFDM 6.Satellite agile systems are developed to provide connectivity between remote terrestrial networks, direct network access, Internet work using fixed or mobile terminals, interactive multimedia applications, and high data-rate transmissions. Most of these research and growing scenarios have considered the Non-Geo Stationary Satellite (NGSO) network for providing satellite-based mobile multimedia services because of its low propagation delay and low path loss. As a result, new generations of broadband satellite communication systems are currently beingness developed to support multimedia and Internet-based applications. For example, the Spaceway system provides downlink transmission rates of up to 100 Mbps, and a total capacity of up to 4.4 Gbps. In company to significantly increase the capacity of 4G broadband satellite systems, current research aims at developing new advanced technologies 5.In the wireless system, OFDM is the main basis for several television and radio broadcast applications, including the European digital audio broadcasting (DAB) and high-definition TV (HDTV) terrestrial broadcasting as well as North American digital radio broadcasting. By the base of the 21st century, OFDM has been adopted as standard for new high-rate wireless local area network (WLAN), such as IEEE 802.11, HIPERLAN II, as well as the Japanese Multimedia Mobile Access Communications (MMAC). Currently, many researches are underway to devolve an OFDM-based system to deliver mobile broadband data service at data rates comparable to those of wired services, such as DSL and cable modems. Moreover,OFDM technology is a very gentle candidate when targeting high quality and high flexibility in mobile multimedia communications over satellite systems 6.When the research interest is in the integration process of 3G terrestrial systems with the satellite domain, the conventional frequency variation MAS (FDMA) system looses its flavor in competing with the code segmentation MAS (CDMA) and time division MAS (TDMA)-based systems for its very high bandwidth (BW) requirement. Moreover, in satellite systems, it is shown that CDMA system outperforms the FDMA system when regeneration is taken in to account. In this case, OFDM replaces FDMA with manifold advantages. Currently wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) and OFDM/TDMA techniques are successfully in use in terrestrial mobile multimedia systems. Therefore, these two Multiple Access schemes (MASs) are getting considerable maintenance 7 in mobile multimedia communications for Non-Geo Stationary Satellite interface.

Exhaust System For The LJMU

Exhaust System For The LJMUThe FS event is held every year at Silverst ane in the UK. The event was set up by the Institute of mechanistic locomotive engineers (IMechE). Universities from around the world come to Silverstone to enter their cars in the event. Each group that enters FS is solely do up of students. There ar a material body of incompatible classes which the car idler be entered. These argon tier 1, Class 1A and Class 2.LJMU is entering in to Class 1. Class 1 consists of a number of antithetic events which can be broken wipe out in to two categories, Static Events and Dynamic Events.The Static Events include, a presentation, locomotive engineering image and Cost Analysis.The Dynamic Events include an acceleration test, a skip-pad test, an autocross race and an endurance race which includes a give the axe economy test.The net glance over radiation pattern give be utilize in the 2011 LJMU FS car. For the give up to be employ it essential fully compl y with the FS rules and regulations. The LJMU FS car is a group bewilder and so it every(prenominal) in allow for be vital to the success of the swallow brass and the final car that communication is nourished.Formula Student 2010LJMU competed in its offshoot FS Class 1 event in 2010 and finished in twenty-first place. This was a great achievement for the university. Feed patronise was given to the university after the event from the FS judges. The feedback true was useful and has given areas of rectifyments for the car. One of the pieces of feedback was criticising the fact that the unloosen brass didnt hand a Lambda sensor to measure the levels of oxygen the in exhaust shooter. This will be one area of improvement for FS 2011.Time ManagementTo effected this project within the strict time limits a Gantt chart has been created. This can be seen in APPENDIX REFERENCE. Within the time 4 stages will be completed. There are analysis, design, verification and manufacture.FS Rules and RegulationsTo successfully create an exhaust schema a number of rules need to be met. The rules and regulations were written by the Formula Society of Automotive locomotiveers (FSAE). These rules are in place to maintain a level playing field with with(predicate)out the teams and to in any case chink that safety hackneyeds are kept. The FS rules can be interpreted in different ways and so create different and interesting designs.To summarise a few rules, the exhaust has to exist within an area of 450 mm stool the centreline of the rear axle and 600 mm above the ground, the driver must be defend against heat and fumes and the sound must not exceed 100dBA.The locomotive size is also limited by FS rules. The rules state that an railway locomotive no bigger than 610cc can be utilise for the competition. The used for the railway locomotive must also pass through a 20mm restrictor.The full list of rules and come off down which are relevant to this project can be s how in ARTICLE 10 Exhaust System and Noise check seen in APPENDIX REFERENCE. rule RestrictionsAs the exhaust will locomote very hot during running it is important that the exhaust pipes dont come in to contact or come too close to other engine peripherals such as electrical cables and fire line. The driver will also be protected by a firewall in case of a fire or excess heat from the engine. As the fuels system, divine guidance system and other peripherals have yet to be decided assumptions must be made in the routing of the exhaust system. The decision has been made to mount the engine expect facing. This will mean that the exhaust ports are facing towards the front of the car and the intake ports are facing the back of the car. This decision has been made to simplify the design of the drive train to minimalize spot lost and pare the risk of failure.The design is also impacted by 20mm restrictor on the wrinkle intake which will also affect the exhaust system.Ricardo vibrate Ricardo kink Build will be used to fully model the exhaust system. Ricardo roll up is an ISO 1D/3D engine and gas dynamics simulation package. waver is used in a number of different industry sectors all involved in simulating engine writ of execution. It used from creating an initial design to the modifying an exist design without having to manufacture any components. WAVE unaccompanied produces theoretical engine implementation data and will need to be verified with experimental data.Ricardo WAVE is a sponsor in the FS event and so all FS teams have access to the software.Learning Ricardo WAVEWithin the WAVE abet file there is a list of tutorials which cover setting up and running an engine model. The tutorials range from beginner to advanced. The beginner spark spunk (SI) tutorial takes the user through the initial setup of an in-line, 4-cylinder 1.6L engine. Two WAVE tutorials have been completed these are the Introductory SI Tutorial and the liaise Concentric Silencer Tutorial.Going through the tutorials helped to give an idea of the different parameters that would need to be collected from the Honda CBR600RR engine. The tutorials also guide the user through the analysis of the model and how a change in the design affects output.Engine SelectionThe engine selection is partly governed by the FS rules and regulations as express earlier. Due to the restrictions a decision was made to go for a reliable, efficacious engine which is light weight. This lead to the Honda CBR600RR-4. The Honda is a 600cc per formulateance motorcycle engine and so its power to weight ratio is high, which makes it perfect for the FS car. LJMU have used this engine for the past 2 years. The specification of the Honda CBR600-3 will be reference to as the engine specification has not changed between 2003 and 2004.The CBR600RR engine is an 16-valve, in-line iv cylinders, four nip, with double overhead camshafts (DOHC) (Coombs, 2006). The Engine uses Programmed Duel Storage (PGM-DS) fuel injectors, two per cylinder, one upper and one lower. The lower injectors are used to enhance reliability, above 5500rpm the upper injectors are triggered and are used to improve top end horsepower (Torrance, 2003).A full specification of the standard CBR600RR can be prime in APPENDIX REFERENCE.There are a number of different fittings that will take place on the engine by the FS event in 2011 and so the specification is national to change. Changes that are being considered are an optimal occupation induction system with the 20mm restrictor, design and manufacture of a shallower sump, reduction in number of gears and modification of ratios and developing an optimised engine map. All of these changes are aimed at change magnitude performance of the engine for the pick upd characteristics of the competition.Literature ReviewTo generate the best performance from an exhaust system knowledge of a 4 bezzant SI Internal combustion (IC) engine is needed.Four- barb spark i gnition (SI) enginesThe four-stroke SI engine has four different strokes as seen in bit 1, Four-stroke IC Engine (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007) The four strokes are inhalant, Compression, Power and Exhaust. For each turn of the crankshaft two strokes occur.The Intake stroke, also cognize as the Induction stroke, starts from Top Dead sum (TDC). In this stroke the piston moves down, the intake value opens cause the air and fuel mixture to be drawn in to the combustion bedchamber. The book of account of the air/fuel mixture drawn in to the chamber is known as the volumetric efficiency.If there is too much air in the mixture then the fuel will burn quickly increasing the blackjack in the chamber too quickly leading to automatonlike losses and misfiring. This is known as a lean fuel mixture and can lead damage the engine.If there is too much fuel in the mixture then all of the fuel will not be burnt leading to inefficiencies as unburnt fuel will be expelled through the exhau st valve. This will also lower the temperature and pressure in the chamber. This is known as a rich fuel mixture.The Compression stroke follows the induction stroke. The compression stroke starts from Bottom Dead Centre (BDC). The intake valve shuts and the piston starts to move back up the chamber. Just before the piston strikes TDC the spark plug fires causing ignition.The Power stroke is where the piston moves down the chamber out-of-pocket to the increase in pressure and temperature from combustion. When the piston hit BDC the exhaust valve opens.The Exhaust stroke forces the gasses out of the combustion chamber through the exhaust valve after the Power stroke. At the end of the exhaust stroke the exhaust valve closes and the cycle starts again. Any exhaust gasses left in the chamber will contaminate the contiguous intake of fuel and will write out the power output.As only one stroke generates any power (Power stroke), energy has to be stored in a flywheel to move the piston for the remain three strokes. (Stone, 1999)Engine ThermodynamicsAn IC engine whether it is a 4 stroke or a 2 stroke is a non-cyclic process. However as the nitrogen in the fluid is virtually unchanged it can be argued that the process is cyclic. This makes calculating the thermodynamic efficiencies much easier as it can be compared to the Otto cycle.PerformanceTo calculate the performance and effectiveness of the exhaust system a number of different parameters will need to be defined.Exhaust DesignThere are two main designs for exhaust systems, exhaust composite and exhaust head word. Both designs have different pros and cons depending on the different requirements.A standard exhaust reproduce can be seen in intent 2, Standard Exhaust Manifold (Monster Autoparts) This Exhaust is made from cast iron, and so it is perfect for production vehicles as casting is tuppeny if the cast is only used on a large scale. However for a one off production exhaust system it would be expensive . Exhaust headers dactyl 3 on the other hand are comparatively inexpensive to produce a one off design as no mould needs to be created and the pipes can be simply hang and cut in to shape.Manifolds are also inefficient compared to exhaust headers. This is due to the air flow in a intricate. When the exhaust gas enters the manifold back pressure is built up. This back pressure restricts the flow for the next wave of exhaust gas. This means that the piston has to proceed harder to force the exhaust gas out of the cylinder leading to power loss. This back pressure can be reduced or eliminated using exhaust headers by taking advantage of the timing. This is known as exhaust pulsation.To fully empathize pulsation it is important to explain the exhaust system shown in Figure 3. This design is a 4-2-1 exhaust. Different exhaust designs can be found in APPENDIX REFERENCE. As can be seen each exhaust port has its own header. Header pipes 1 and 2 join and header pipes 3 and 4 join. These joints are known as collectors which then form the secondary headers. The 2 secondary headers then move in to the final collector and form the downpipe. The firing order of the Honda CBR600 engine is 1-2-4-3 (Coombs, 2006).Improving Engine PerformanceTo improve the performance of the engine pulsation can be used. Pulsation is whereExhaust PulsationExhaust Gas TurbochargersThere are two different types of exhaust gas turbocharging. These are Pulse Turbocharging and eternal Pressure Turbocharging.Exhaust Gas RecirculationExhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) is where a downhearted portion of the exhaust gas (5-10%) is fed through a valve back in to the inlet manifold ready for the intake stroke. This helps to decrease emissions of nighttime (nitric oxcide and nitrogen dioxide) as the amount of fresh fuel drawn in to the cylinder in replaced with exhaust gas. Between 5 and 10% of EGR is possible to halve the NOx emissions (Stone, 1999).EGR increases intake manifold pressure. The higher i ntake manifold pressure leads to a reduction in the charge cycle work and this lowers the fuel consumption. During EGR the peak combustion temperature is reduced due to the exhaust gas not being used during combustion which will cause less(prenominal) energy to be produced. (Bosch, 2007)EGR can cause misfire and partial burn down to occur as the amount of fuel in the cylinder is reduced, causing a lean mixture.Data CollectionEngine GeometryTo create an finished model in WAVE geometry from the CRB engine has to be collected. This was done in a number of different ways.A list of geometry needed for WAVE can be found here APPENDIX REFERENCE.A vernal head from a CRB engine was purchased and was used to collect the relevant information. A new head was purchased as the tests that were carried out on the head would require taking sections, which would destroy the head beyond repair.DIGITISING ARMVOLUME OF INTAKES AND fatigue PORTSRolling Road TestingExhaust Geometry

Ethical Practice in Social Work

Ethical expend in companionable moveThe aim of this exit is to demonstrate links mingled with divergent codes defining estimable practice, legislation and the selectments of employmental conduct. The fountain will too discuss knowledge of traditional loving sour determine and novel changes in the judge antecedent of friendly engagement. The relationship of apprize orientational themes and the field of ethical theories will also be considered, concluding with the requirements of pass place favorable realize practice.Although complaisant puddle is a profession laden with contradictions, the radical task within the social work profession is to realize that the directives and principles enshrined in social work object les boyity, c tot in ally on social workers to establish mankind rights and willingly be able to challenge unjust principles (Allan et al 2009). example codes and social construction is recorded as far back as the Ancient Greek Polis era wi th suppression of civic autonomy. The idea of livelihood of virtue and kind-hearted fulfilment leading on to the pertly descriptor in moral philosophy chartered during the Hellenistic era ar the slightly discussed social structures discussed to date, regarding early ethics and values although forms of social structural developments were occurring in Egypt, Mesopotamia, China and India has less recorded by historians (Bryant 1996). Bisman (2004) acknowledges that the core concept of virtuous concerns drove social works development during the professions formative years. Although Jones (1997) cited in Bisman (2004) (pg 110) complains that the profession has been peculiar(prenominal)ly silent over the past twenty years about the shifting patterns in social well be and disadvantage and that this silence may be a direct violation of the social work codes of ethics.The fury of social change was more than than evident during the settlement movement and the emphasis was on To ynbees philosophy that in that respect was a need to unite the advocacy of social remedy and the inclusion of various classes to ensure society performs those duties (Bisman 2004). self determination is central to the social workers ethical responsibilities to knobs. Hepworth et al (2009) (pg 60.) predict that codes of ethics ar the embodiment of a professions values. Acknowledgment for principals and standards for social workers behaviours be imbedded in the Codes of ethics circulated by the National Association of affable organizeers addressing the track down of responsibilities that social workers drive home as victors to their lymph nodes, colleagues, employers, profession and to society as a whole (Hepworth et al 2008 ). Addams (1902) (pg 1) believed that ethics is but another word for business without which life becomes meaningless.The fall in Nations Convention on the remediates of a kidskin acknowledge that the values vary from country to country and the understanding of values universally are very moot. However, it is not just the question of opposite values, but a question of relative power (Heintz 2009). Every peasant Matters (2003) contains five outcomes which are being healthy, staying safe, enjoying and achieving, qualification a positive donation as well as economic well-being have listless the UNCRC Articles into a comprehensible table. This ensures that practicians are drawn to reflecting the ethical principles and value substructure when making their decisions regarding guest inescapably.Wilks (2005) highlights that at that place are two central abstract strands that method of accounting for social work values these are social work ethics and anti-discriminatory practice. However although these two strands lie together thither are conflicts. Strategies have been adopted to bridge the gap in principle by means of social justice or equality.Nash (2000) was also interested in the ethics of the man-to-man self and understanding the power differences. Although seeing everyone as social actors, concerned with interaction through social behaviour keister at times be fragmented, unstable, fluid and fast changing. This unpredictability is wherefore it is very important that social workers analyse each individual theatrical role thoroughly, reflecting on where and when to employ ethical and value strandd decisions that will knead positive results.Clarks (2000) cited in Tovey (2007) acknowledges that there are five basic principles that resurrect ethical practice in social work are detect for and promotion of individuals rights to self-determinationPromotion of eudaemonia or well-being equivalenceDisruptive justiceDiscip bloodFurthermore, it is important that traditional social work values are employed, but it is also important that consideration for limitations of traditional social work values and how these values change at macro, meso and petty levels of practice. Dominelli 2004(pg 63) ar gues that although empowering clients is seen as a itinerary of moving anterior, it is unable to do more than deal with issues at the micro level of practice in the practitioner-client relationship, and has little impact on structural inequalities, which also need to be cease. By being involved in transforming the knowledge base and structure of clients period or future side, the social workers has to rethink the epistemo system of logical base on which social work is founded and establish a value base that aims to create a professional culture that brush aside guide particular preventatives (Dominelli 2004). Banks (2006) acknowledges that ethical issues are problematic in social work and that the codes of ethics and codes of conduct fail to explicitly address issues faced by those who are regulated by them. Practioners find themselves in difficult situations which at times results in ethical dilemmas. It is still imperative to graceful the requirements of professional condu ct and that the deontological approach creates a logic whereby professionals are duty-bound to bring home the bacon their ethical code and where ethical practice without guiding principles is inconceivable (Gray 2009 pg 2).The economical kindly Services Codes of behave (SSSC 2005) 2005 are a key musical note in a system of regulation for social attend tos delivered on with setting standards for practitioners to be accountable for their actions. SSSC (2005) state that there are half-dozen codes of practice that social return workers are required to induce account of these areProtect the rights and promote the interests of service Users and tuitionrs.Strive to establish and go on the trust and confidence ofService substance abusers and carers.Promote the independence of service users fleck defendThem as far as possible from danger or accidental injury.Respect the rights of service users whilst seeking to ensurethat their behaviour does not combat injury themselves or o ther tidy sum.Uphold public trust and confidence in social services.Be accountable for the quality of their work and learnresponsibility for maintaining and improving theirknowledge and skills. friendly work has undergone radical changes, in addition, the imperialist approach has been highly criticised as being stereotyped and culturally absorbed with the blame culture. Raynor (1984) recognised that there was a difference in accountability, irrespective of justification. His findings were that social workers are accountable for their own actions, although social workers were only sheltering the weaker party in an imbalance of power. It is important that social workers draw on empirical approaches, although the focus should be on solving problems and narrowing the problematic gap in cultural differences between social worker /client relationship on the job(p) within a moral rational manner.A postmodern approach in social work has highlighted areas in the welfare state that ackno wledge that circumstantial welfare resources are being running due to rationalisation. Social services need to look at the way economic, social structures and regional injustices in impoverished communities are constructed and adapt to oppose their individual need. Postmodernism argues for the grand or universal social change on which social work was founded, but now ultimately social work must refocus its attentions on exposing global economical inequalities and oppressive sexuality and ethnicity- base relationships across the globe (Noble 2004).The Kantian philosophy encourages that we should treat others as a being who has choice and desires on with a being is those who are resourceful of rational thought and self determined actions should have the ability to determine away decisions and act accordingly to their own choices and desires (Banks 2006).Although deontological and utilitarian approaches tend to dominate social work ethics Lovat and Gray (2008) dispute that w ithin this postmetaphysical age Habermas offers a form of proportionate ethics through the Aristotelian and Thomistic thinking oblation a new and practical approach which is particularly appropriate to a modernately post-scientific, postmetaphysical age. Lovat and Gray (2008) (pg 1101) also recognised within the moderately post-scientific age, although the thinking had a heavy reliance on information they were aware of the limitations of science in addressing adequately all of lifes demands and providing all of its answers. Lovat and Gray (2008) also proposed a new approach to ethical deliberation and judgment that has potential to meet the needs of those seeking greater ontological certainty than science can depart.By implementing a Proportionism approach, which is an ethical and moral approach and holds promise for a more balanced perspective in that social work is both science and art. Overall the proportionist approach is comfortable with the inconsistent position in whatso ever ethical dilemma and by applying wisdom, jetsense and probing scientific explanations an ethical decision can be made. The value of a proportionist position is beaver captured when we realise that any ethical decision which runs counter to accepted or popular norms cannot be underestimated in terms of its potential to create tension, care or recrimination( Lovat and Gray 2008 pg 1107).Changing Lives (2006) highlights the ethical and value base by means of four tier approach negotiating a balance between care and instruction, although the practitioner is under statutory obligation and the nature of the situation is complex the focus should be with avoiding any ethical boundary disputes working in a multi disciplinary approach focusing on the value base work with the client.Pitts (2000) discusses the Federation International des Communautes Educatives 1998 (FICE 1998) describes that a fundamental ethical practice is of critical impressiveness. A code of ethics establishes d ear practice and offers guidance to individual workers in difficult situations, along with playacting as a template against which to test conduct and target reform of modifications that need to be made. This in turn guides the practitioners to think about take up practice and new answers to ethical issues that may arise.Within getting it proficient for Every child (2006) Big Words and Big Tables section 2.6 consent/ morality, ethically empower the child or young psyche disregarding of age to educate and promote the outmatch services usable by informing the chid or young mortal of all resources available. The FICE 1998 is dedicate to promoting the lives and future of children and young people around the world creating and promoting global standards for looked afterward children, The British Association of Social Workers has a Code of Ethics key principles reinforce what service providers should be doing to meet the needs of children and young people these areHuman Digni ty and WorthRespect for human haughtiness and for individual and cultural diversityValue for every human being, their beliefs, goals, preferences and needsRespect for human rights and self-determinationPartnership and empowerment with users of services and with carersEnsuring certificate for vulnerable peopleSocial JusticePromoting fair access to resources enough treatment without prejudice or discriminationReducing disadvantage and expulsionChallenging the abuse of powerServiceHelping with personal and social needsEnabling people to develop their potentialContributing to creating a fairer societyIntegrityHonesty, reliability and confidentialityCompetenceMaintaining and expanding competence to provide a quality serviceHarris (1998)(pg 843) highlights that in the new social services departments, social work was to exist, not simply as another branch of local anaesthetic referenceity administration, but in its own right as a state-mediated, bureau-professional labour swear out. Consideration for Biesteks casework principles, individualisation, purposeful expression of feelings, controlled emotional involvement, acceptance, non-judgemental attitude, service user self-determination and confidentiality were the early foundations of principles that have paved the way for influencing register date values in social work (Banks 2006). Tovey (2007) insists that the principles are broadcast to interpretation and practitioners should be aware of the limitations in ethical decision making and the focus on rules and duties influence determining actions in particular situations.The effective framework within the Children (Scotland) Act 1995 (Act 1995) underpins what practitioners are required to do to ensure children and young people are provided for and looked afterward by parents, guardians or their local antecedentity. The Act 1995 chapter 36 section 19 advises that the plan for services has to take into consideration relevant services to be provided.References Addams, J. 1902. Democracy and Social Ethics. Macmillan London.Allan, J., Briskman, L., Pease, B. overcritical Social Work Theories and Practices for a Socially Just World. Allen Unwin NSW.Banks, S. 3rd Ed, 2006. Ethics and Values in Social Work. Palgrave Macmillan Basingstoke.Bisman, C. 2004 Social Work Values The righteous Core of the Profession. British Journal of Social Work 2004. 34, 109-123.Bryant, M,J. 1996. Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece A Sociology of Greek Ethics from homing pigeon to Epicureans and Stoics. New York undertake USA. purchasable on trend Changing Lives make known of the 21st Century Social Work Review http//www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2006/02/02094408/8 Accessed October 2009. addressable on line Children (Scotland) Act 1995 http//www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1995/ukpga_19950036_en_3pt2-ch1-pb2-l1g19 Accessed October 2009.Dominelli, L. 2004. Social Work Theory and Practice for a Changing Profession. Polity Press Cambridge.Available on lineEvery Child Matters (2003) http//www.dcsf.gov.uk/everychildmatters/strategy/strategyandgovernance/uncrc/unitednationsconventionontherightsofthechild/ Accessed October 2009.Available on lineGetting it Right for Every Child (2006) http//www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2005/06/20135608/56098 Accessed October 2009.Gray, M. 2009. Moral Sources and emergent Ethical Theories in Social Work. Brittish Journal of Social Work, kinsfolk 22, 2009.1-18.Harris, J. 1998. Scientific Managment, Bureau-Professionalism, New Managerialism The advertise Process of State Social Work. British Journal of Social Work. (1998) 28, 839-862.Heintz, M. 2009. The Anthropology of Moralities. Berghahn Books United States.Hepworth, H, D., Rooney, H, R., Rooney, D,G., Strom-Gottfried, K., Larsen, J. 2009 8th Ed. Direct Social Work Practice Theory and Skill. Cengage attainment Canada.Lovat, T., Gray, M. 2008. Towards a Proportionist Social Work Ethics A Habermasian Perspective British Journal of Social Work 2008.38, 1100-1114.Raynor, P. 1984. Evaluation with One Eye unlikeable The Empiricist Agenda in Social Work Research. British Journal of Social Work 1984. 14, 1-10.Available on line Pitts, J. 2000. Committee on the Rights of the Child State Violence Against Children. http//www.crin.org/docs/resources/treaties/crc.25/pitts.pdf Accessed October 2009.Noble, C. 2004. Postmodern Thinking Where is it Taking Social Work? Journal of Social Work. 2004. 4, 289-304.Nash, K. 2000. Readings in Contempory Political Sociology. Blackwell Publishers Ltd Oxford.Available on line The British Association of Social Workers has a Code of Ethics http//www.basw.co.uk/Default.aspx?tabid=64 Accessed October 2009.Available on line The Scottish Social Services Codes of Practice 2005 http//www.sssc.uk.com/NR/rdonlyres/3A6C6F84-EB11-4DE2-90FF-5E143610C2B7/0/SSSCCodesofPracticebookletSept09.pdf Accessed October 2009.Tovey, W. 2007. The Post-Qualifying Handbook for Social Workers. Jessica Kingsley Publishers Lond on.Wilks, T. 2005. Social Work and Narrative Ethics. British Journal of Social Work 2005. 35, 1249-1264.Case StudyIn this assignment the author had to take into consideration any ethical and value ground factors before exploring a workable cure encumbrance that would meet the needs of the client within this case study. The ethical and value based dilemmas that require consideration needed to be put into a logical workable framework. The author and then can identify and progressively translate to meet the needs of any ethical issues faced by both practitioner and client. This process needs to be addressed ethically in triplet different ways these are the interests, rights and power. The author will then reflect, explain, abridgment and use evidence on how to approach and meet the ethical needs of the client.The client will be given a pseudonym to protect and ensure confidentiality and privacy throughout this assignment, consent was also given by the main carers. The boy who wil l be referred to as Marc is now 12 years of age and has recently been diagnosed with (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) ADHD which is now being challenged (Appendix 1).First and fore well-nigh, it is vitally important to look at the young person as a whole by using the Getting it Right for Every Child 2006 (GIRFEC 2006) My world Framework approach which is underpinned by common values and principles along with shared ensamples, tools and practices that are designed to support work with children and young people (on line). Although GIRFEC 2006 -Proposal for Action Analysis of Consultation Responses argue is there sufficient emphasis and guidance about the childs involvement and are there sections which need strengthening to ensure that the child or young person is at the heart of the process? (on line). This statement reinforces the authors need to assess all aspects of the clients wellbeing. This in turn ensures that the author considers all areas of ethical value based con cerns before committing to a solution based framework to employ to the service users current situation. By utilising Collingwoods (2005) trinity- horizontal surface theory framework provided the author with a workable framework to apply a process that would then develop a flexible and developmental tool, which can then identify any specific ethical and value based issues to inform the authors intervention strategy.Consideration for emphasise information to work ethically with clientBy using a Proportionism approach and by looking at the applied science model to solve any ethical issues, then by applying an existing bole of professional knowledge to make sense of complex and difficult human situations. This generates an understanding of the current situation, develops a structured sequence to practice in a systematic way, then to practice in a heedful and professional manner to al small(a) consideration of cultural circumstance of the current ethical dilemmas (Howe 2002). By comp leting the Collingwood (2005) theory circle, stage two communicate the author of the theory to inform/ intervene ethically and stage three helped identify the knowledge, skills and values to work ethically with the client.The author drew on more than one principle based ethical approach. This maximised the wellbeing and minimised harm whilst fol dispiriteding core values, principles and codes. Although applying the deontological approach allows the author the ability to create logic and ensures that the author is following ethical codes and principles as there are moral judgments and difficult ethical decisions to be made. Gray (2009) reinforces that practitioners should not undermine the importance of principles and codes. It seems logical to utilise modern workable theory to practice by employing the proportionals approach to explore present situation, consequences and sense of perception on the arse of evidence before the practitioner, using the best means available for forming judgments that springs forthwith from these means and allows for the end to justify the means (Gray 2009). By applying the Proportionism approach allows the author to build on, manufacture or complement theories, by transcending existing theories to provide a new and superior form of working ethically it can only enhance practitioner/ client relationships (Lovat and Gray 2008).The following areas were highlighted as in need of development to address the ethical issues for the client.The author believes that there is an insecure attachment base. Bowlby cited in Butterworth and Harris (1994) argues that insecure attachments contribute to the formation of a neurotic personality as they take the child down a psychologically unhealthy pathway.Developmental stage using Ericsons psychosocial stages where the child should be in the fourth stage of industry versus inferiority, recognising that it is important that the child does not run the risk of developing a sense of inferiority a sens e of inadequacy resulting in feeling worthless at this stage (Slee 2002). Leading on to the general effect of the grief, after the mind has suffered an clear-sighted paroxysm of grief, and the cause still continues, we fall into a state of low spirits or feel utterly cast down and dismay (on line) (Darwin1872).InterventionIt has been long recognised that practitioners have been torn between the utilitarian and the deontologists approach to social work and by breaking free and exploit on the basis inclusion, open communication, empathy and being impartial is the way forward for practitioners (Houston 2003). A valid moral decision is reached when those affected by it recognize it as the preferred way forward. In reaching this agreement participants must accept the consequences of the decision for all concerned and its impact on everyones interests (Houston 2003 pg 822). remedy interventions are used in many different situations and the end goals of intervention programs are to ins pire people to make the necessary changes to take control of their own lives again (on line) (When are therapeutical Interventions Recommended?).Consideration for the clients diagnosis as being ADHD is a significant contributing factor to ensuring the best therapeutic model is used to address underlying issues. Controlled longitudinal studies shew that by late adolescence and early adulthood, children identified as having ADHD are at risk for a number of mental health problems the most noticeable are anti-social behaviours, cognitive difficulties, poor academic achievement and subvert occupational status (on line) ( Thorley 1998). Although diagnose of the clients ADHD is in dispute, ethically the author is at duty to include the probability of ADHD until a determinate assessment is carried out to confirm or dismiss the first diagnosis when considering play therapy interventions.The British Association of Play Therapists (BAPT) is the foremost professional bole that registers P lay Therapists and regulates Play Therapy practice in Britain and have codes of practice along with play therapy standards to regulate play therapy and training (on line)(BAPT 2009). Play Therapists need to be motivated, concerned and directed towards good ethical practice. They are required to take responsibility to maintain these standards and Play Therapists should always accept responsibility for their professional behavior and actions (on line) (BAPT 2009).Consideration for Biesteks casework principles, individualisation, purposeful expression of feelings, controlled emotional involvement, acceptance, non-judgemental attitude, service user self-determination and confidentiality were the early foundations of principles that have paved the way for influencing present date values in social work (Banks 2006). The author drew on Biesteks casework principles but found that although Biestek theory focuses on concern of the welfare of the individual it fails to offer satisfactory accou nts for relationships. The author has identified that there is a progress to on positive relationships, and feels that this is an area that requires prompt development. Ethical responsibilities flow from all human relationships, from the personal and familial to the social and professional. Ethical decision making is a process (Webb 2003 pg 22).Holland (2009) acknowledges that a key element within ethic of justice is that of individual rights and that this is a very important development for looked after children. The client has be informed and made aware of all aspects of the intervention process before any structured work can take place as the vast amount of therapeutic play therapy relies intemperately on parent participation. This alone poses an ethical dilemma as the client is within a residential group setting and relationships between client /staff may be inconsistent.In conclusion to this assignment the author feels that it would benefit all parties if the play therapy was delayed until the new adopted parents were approved. This would then enrich the relationships between client/ adoptive parents, furthermore they can subsequently build resilience in the new family unit, along with educating the new adoptive parents of the complex chronicle and the future needs of the client. The long term value base and ethical benefits would outweigh any short term warm fix solution the new adoptive parents require the best tools available to ensure that the new family unit works.ReferencesBanks, S. 3rd Ed, 2006. Ethics and Values in Social Work. Palgrave Macmillan Basingstoke.Butterworth, G., Harris, M. 1994. Principles of Developmental Psychology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd UK.Collingwood, P. 2005. Integrated Theory and Practice The Three exemplify Theory Framework. The Journal of Practice Teaching in Health and Social Work, Volume 6, Number 1, 2005, pp. 6-23(18).Available on line Darwin, R, C. 1872. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals http/ /darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1142viewtype=textpageseq=1 Accessed October 2009.Available on line Dr. Thorley, G. 1998. Therapeutic Intervention for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder http//www.drgeoffthorley.com/ADHD%20article%201998.pdf Accessed October 2009.Gray, M. 2009. Moral Sources and Emergent Ethical Theories in Social Work. British Journal of Social Work, September 22, 2009.1-18.Holland, S. Looked After Children and the Ethic of Care. British Journal of Social Work. August 10 2009. 1-17.Houston, S. 2003. Establishing Virtue in Social Work A Response to McBeth and Webb. British Journal of Social Work (2003) 33, 819-824.Lovat, T., Gray, M. 2008. Towards a Proportionist Social Work Ethics A Habermasian Perspective. British Journal of Social Work (2008). 38, 1100-1114.Slee, T. P. 2002. 2nd Ed. Child, Adolescent, and Family Development. Cambridge University Press UK.Available on line The British Association of Play Therapists http//www.bapt.info/playthera pystandards.htm Accessed October 2009.Available on line When are Therapeutic Interventions Recommended? http//ezinearticles.com/?When-is-Therapeutic-Interventions-Recommended?id=1499263 Accessed October 2009.Webb, B, N. 2003. 2nd Ed. Social Work with Children. The Guilford Press New York.Appendix 1Accommodated under Sec 25 C(S)Act 95Marc was born in England. Marcs birth parents were substance users and had a chaotic lifestyle. He was unable to inhabit permanently in their care and as a result was fostered in a number of placements returning to the care of his parents for short periods and having sporadic contact with them. Marc blames himself for not being able to remain in their care.He was adopted by a couple in Scotland at the age of 5 years. The couple were not able to have their own children. The couple then went on to have a son of their own and since then he has been treated differently. There are no photos of Marc in the house, he does not have a bike (the blood brother d oes), he is the family scapegoat and blamed for problems in the parents relationship. Marc has since been diagnosed with ADHD and his diet cut back as a means of attempting to control this. There is some contest by health professionals as to whether the diagnosis is accurate, he is on low dose medication and there has been some reported improvement in his attention levels. Marc also has a developmental delay in self care i.e. knowing how to wash himself, toileting skills. Marc remained with his adoptive parents until last month when his parents asked for him to be removed due to their perception of his behaviour being unacceptable. Marc had stolen sweets. As a result of this Marc has been accommodated in residential home on a maverick basis until a long term family can be identified. Marc believes that stealth the sweets caused the breakdown in the relationship with his adoptive family consequently blaming himself.Recently a family has been identified and the residential unit is planning to undertake a therapeutic intervention in order to prepare Marc to have an understanding of his history and build his self esteem. The prospective adoptive family are in the process of being approved by the fostering and adoption panel.

Microbiology for Environmental Engineering

Microbiology for environmental applied scienceBy Georgios TzelepisMicroorganisms play a major role in arbitrary water and waste quality and every biological cognitive operation is base on the action of microorganisms. Bacteria constitute an all important(predicate) group of microorganisms which ar directly related to Environmental Engineering beca single-valued function of their crucial role in sewer water treatment. They ar single cadreed prokaryotic organisms with a structurally and functionally artless form and various shapes, such as spherical, rod-shaped or spiral. One master(prenominal) characteristic of the bacteriuml cell is the lack of building block tissue layer constitution with exception the cytoplasmic membrane. The identification of bacterium is ground on a number of different criteria including their morphological (shape, size), physiological and inherited characteristics. Their re fruit is found on the binary split with formation cartridge clip of ab come to the fore 20 minutes. Bacteria nuclear number 18 sensitive to pH changes and they deliver the goods under neutral conditions, although some of them shadow survive in a highly acidic environment. Regarding their survival temperature, they atomic number 18 divided into psychrophilic, mesophilic and thermophilic. Bacteria be very sensitive to temperature changes and they view as an optimum out elicitth temperature. (Darakas, 2016)Bacteria aim the capacity to degrade the constitutive(a) substances (pollutants) and this is the reason why they be the intimately important group of organisms in scathe of the public health engineering, since biological waste water treatment processes are based on their activities. The socialisation of pollutants is mainly achieved by the biological self-cleaning of the water thanks to microorganisms and specifically bacterium. The main three points of interest in the sewer water treatment is the microorganisms (bacteria), the include d complete matter which constitutes diet for microorganisms and the oxygen which is necessary for the zilch and survival of microorganisms. ecumenicly, the metabolous diversity of organisms, and more specifically of bacteria, firstly depends on the postal code parentage. cogency is important for the chemical reactions and is arrive ated from environmental sources. When the sources are chemicals, the species are called chemotrophs, time when the slide fastener is derived from the light they are called phototrophic species. However, some bacteria have the ability to routine both zero sources based on conditions.Second classification is based on the deoxycytidine monophosphate source. When they are natural fertiliser compounds they are called chemoheterotrophs or photoheterotrophs respectively. early(a) than when in constitutional compounds are accustomd, bacteria are called chemoautotrophs or photoautotrophs.Finally, chemotroph bacteria which metabolize organic chemic als for energy are called chemoorganotrophs. Contrariwise, those that use inorganic chemicals are called chemolithotrophs. thither are two basic types of metabolism for chemoorganotrophs fermentation, in which the metabolism of the substratum is without outer oxidizing agent, and respiration, in which there is an external oxidizing agent. Both types of metabolism fecal matter convert a primary source of energy to unitary which can be used by the cells.2.1.1 Carbon sourceBacteria that use hundred dioxide for the majority (or all) of their carbon readments are called autotrophs. The obligate autotrophs that are adapted to use only when CO2 as a source of carbon use simple energy substrates and they are either chemolithotrophs or photolithotrophs. (Singleton, 2005) In autotroph bacteria carbon dioxide from the environment is used to form interlinking compounds, but also there is the situation that carbon dioxide is incorporated in these compounds and called fixed. There are two vernacular pathways for this fixation, the Calvin cycle and the reductive TCA cycle. Autotrophs are able to succeed in very harsh environments, such as deep sea vents, repayable to their lack of habituation on extraneous sources of carbon other than carbon dioxide. (Yates et al., 2016)On the other hand, some of the know species of bacteria are heterotrophic, both aerobic and anaerobic. They use as a main source of carbon complex carbon compounds derived from other organisms, with the most significant the glucose, alcohol, and organic acids. However, there are specialised heterotrophic bacteria capable also of decomposing cellulose (actinomycetes), keratin, hydrocarbons, and other substances. Heterotrophs are only able to thrive in environments that are capable of sustaining other forms of action due to their dependence on these organisms for carbon sources. (Lester Birkett, 1999)2.2 Energy sourceMicroorganisms, and more specifically bacteria, require food to obtain energy. Phototrophic bacteria are mostly aquatic organisms and obtain energy using radiant energy (light), usually via photo price reduction. This happens through vary pigments that they comprise in order to form energy molecules. Generally, photosynthetic bacteria can be divided in two categories, these who accomplish the photosynthesis with production of oxygen (aerobically) and those without (unaerobically). (Singleton, 2005)Chemotrophs are organisms that obtain their energy by metabolisng chemicals from the environment, through the oxidisation of inorganic molecules, such as iron and magnesium. They are divided in two different categories, chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs, with their difference already been described. (Boundless, 2016)Carbon source of heterotrophic bacteria can be either oil-soluble and colloidal organics of untreated waste (BOD) or endogenous carbon microorganisms, i.e. the carbon putrescent light cells or methanol (CH3OH), which is the best organic substrat e to the denitrification. (Darakas, 2016)2.3 Electron acceptorAs mentioned, all the bacterial cells have to convert a primary source of energy into forms that can be used. Some cells can convert a primary energy source to an electrochemical form which constitutes of a gradient of ions between the two proves of cytoplasmic membrane. Chemotroph and phototroph bacteria form high-energy compounds from a primary energy source using different techniques. (Singleton, 2005)Respiration is a type of metabolism in which a substrate is metabolized with the help of an external oxidizing agent. Oxygen can work as the exogenous oxidizing agent having aerobic respiration, or organic oxidizing agents can be used instead in an anaerobic respiration. Despite the fact that the oxidizing agent can be inorganic or organic, in chemoorganotrophs, the substrate is always an organic compound. (Singleton, 2005)Oxygen is the concluding electron acceptor for the aerobic respiration. The sugar is have it aw ayly broken bulge to carbon dioxide and water, yielding a maximum of 38 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose. Electrons are transferred to oxygen using the electron transport chain (ETC), a system of enzymes and cofactors located in the cytoplasmic membrane and arranged so that the conversion of electrons down the chain is coupled with the cause of protons (hydrogen ions) across the membrane and out of the cell. ETC induces the movement of positively charged hydrogen ions to the outside of the cell and negatively charged ions to its interior. This ion gradient results in the acidification of the external medium and an energized plasma membrane with an electrical charge of 150 to 200 millivolts. The generation of ion gradients is a normal aspect of energy generation and storage in all living(a) organisms. The gradient of protons is used directly by the cell for many processes, including the prompt transport of nutrients and the rotation of flagella. The protons also can mov e from the exterior of the cell into the cytoplasm by passing through a membrane enzyme called the F1F0-proton-translocating ATPase, which couples this proton movement to ATP synthesis. (Kadner Rogers, 2015)Bacteria that are able to use respiration enkindle far more energy per sugar molecule than do fermentative cells, because the complete oxidation of the energy source allows complete extraction of all of the energy available. (Kadner Rogers, 2015)Respiration can also occur under anaerobic conditions. anaerobiotic respiration uses external oxidizing agents such as nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2), sulfate (SO42), or fumarate in place of oxygen. Depending on the different types or conditions, the electron bestower (substrate) used by chemoorganotrophs in anaerobic respiration is of various organic compounds. The energy yields available to the cell using these acceptors are lower than in respiration with oxygen, but they are still substantially higher than the energy yields availabl e from fermentation. The utilization of CO2as a terminal electron acceptor is limited to a group of bacteria called methanogens and this process requires a strongly reduced environment. This use produces methane (CH4) which can be a problem in some instances akin landfill sites. (Maier, 1999)All the bacteria have an optimum growth temperature where their growth is faster, era they also have a specific range of temperature into which they can only grow. Most of the bacteria are mesophilic and they grow in temperatures between 15 and 45 degrees of Celsius. Thermophilic are bacteria with growth temperature over 45 degrees of Celsius, temporary hookup psychrophilic are the bacteria with growth temperature under 15 degrees.3.1 Low temperatureIt is healthful known that bacteria as well as various other forms of life survive and thrive optimally in crack conditions of temperature, pressure, pH and other environmental parameters. However, there is also evidence of bacteria life in ext reme environments. For example bacteria were found to exist in the very acidic river Rio Tino while also bacteria were detected in subzero environments like in Lake Vostok even in depth of 3600 meters, on a lower floor the surface ice. (Chattopadhyay Sengupta, 2013)At low temperature, bacteria are challenged with a number of difficulties due to decrease in the rate of biochemical reactions that sustain the life. Bacteria interpreted from low temperature environments were found with increased branched chain, short chain, anteiso and unsaturated oleaginous acids. They were also found to synthesize more cis fatty acids in gustatory perception to trans fatty acids. All these factors are contributing in the increase of membrane fluidity. Moreover, in order to adjust with the low enthalpy and the reduced atomic and molecular motions at low temperature, they achieve flexibility through simplification in strength and number of non-covalent interactions. Finally a high take aim of post- transcriptional modification of t-RNA by dihydrouridine also has a major role in psychrophiles. Dihydrouridine unsettles the stacking that stabilizes the RNA. (Chattopadhyay Sengupta, 2013)3.2 High temperatureThermophilic bacteria are common in soil and volcanic habitats and have a limited species configuration. Examination of metabolic pathways and regulatory mechanisms in thermophiles proves that thermophilic bacteria have almost the same properties commonly found in mesophilic bacteria, with the main difference being specific molecular mechanisms, important in high temperature biological stability and activity. As a consequence of growth at high temperature and unique macromolecular properties, thermophilic bacteria can consume high metabolic rates, physically and chemically stable enzymes than similar mesophilic species. Thermophilic processes come forward more stable, rapid and facilitate reactant activity and product recovery. Analysis of important biomolecules in thermophi lic bacteria has revealed subtle structural differences in proteins, nucleic acids and lipids. Some of these differences have not been observed in mesophilic bacteria. For instance the membrane lipids of extreme thermophiles contain more saturated and straight chain fatty acids than mesophiles. This allows thermophilic bacteria to grow at higher temperatures by providing the correct degree of fluidity requisite for membrane function. Finally the explanation for high temperature stability of tRNA in Thermus species is that Thermus transfer RNA contains more guanine plus cytosine bases in the specific base-p subscriber lineed division, which endures greater hydrogen bonding and increased thermal stability. Also, the base-paired region in tRNAs from Thermus contains more thiolated thymidine which provides a stronger stacking force inside the molecule. (Zeikus, 1979)The restoration, nutrition and protection of the environment with the help of biological agents in general and bacteri a more specifically are significantly important in terms of sustainability in the environment. Hence, in many cases, bacteria and environmental engineering go hand in hand and both are interdependent on each other. Their main connection is the removal and treatment of the wastes, unassailable or liquid, from various sources like the industrial, domestic and other. There are many examples of the use of bacteria especially in waste and effluent treatment, where some reclaimable characteristics of bacteria are used. 4.1 sewer water treatmentBiological treatment is one of the most widely used removal methods as well as for partial or complete stabilization of biologically degradable substances in wastewaters. General characteristics of wastewaters are measured in terms of Chemical Oxygen ask (COD), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS). Bacteria provide the largest component of the microbial community in all biological wastewater treatment processes, a nd numbers in excess of 106 bacteria/ml of wastewater are frequently encountered.4.1.1 Activation SludgeActivated sludge is a process that has been adopted worldwide as a secondary biological treatment for domestic wastewaters. In the activated sludge process the immersion wastewater is complex and aerated with existing biological sludge (microorganisms). Organics in the wastewater come into contact with the microorganisms and are utilized as food and oxidized to CO2, and H2O. The microorganisms using the organics as food they reproduce, grow, and die. While the microorganisms grow, are mixed together by the movement of air so individual organisms gist an diligent mass of microbes called activated sludge. The wastewater flows continuously into an aeration tank where air is injected to mix the activated sludge with the wastewater and to supply oxygen require for microbes to breakdown the organic materials. This mixture of activated sludge and wastewater in the aeration tank is ca lled mixed liquor suspended solids and mixed liquor quicksilver(a) suspended solids. The mixed liquor is sent to the sludge handling governing body (second part of activation sludge method). A part of this mass precipitates while the rest flows back to the aeration tank in order to maintain able microbial population levels. This is the called activated sludge. The microorganisms in activated sludge principally are composed of 70 to 90% organic and 10 to 30% inorganic matter. The microorganisms generally found in activated sludge consist of bacteria (mostly), fungi and protozoa.4.1.2 Nitrogen and Phosphorus removalNitrogen and daystar are two essential elements in terms of the waste treatment. The north compounds and the phosphates existing in wastewaters are very important for the survival of the bacteria although they should be removed in order to avoid problems of deoxygenation and eutrophication in the nett recipient. (Bitton, 2010)NitrificationThe principal organisms invol ved in nitrification processes belong into two categories, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. These bacteria are considered to be strictly autotrophs since they derive energy for growth and synthesis from the oxidation of inorganic newton and carbon (CO2) compounds. Nitrosomonas catalyse oxidation of ammonia to nitrite using molecular oxygen, while Nictobacter further oxidize nitrite to nitrate using oxygen derived from the water molecule. It should be mentioned that some some soluble forms of c-BOD can inhibit the activity of nitrifying bacteria since they are able to land the cells of nitrifying bacteria and inactivate their enzyme systems. (Horan, 1989)DenitrificationDenitrification is a process by which certain species of bacteria under anoxic conditions reduce nitrate nitrogen to the gaseous end-products of N2, NO, or N2O which can then escape from solution to the atmosphere. Unlike other nitrogen compounds, the gaseous forms of nitrogen have no significant effect on environmental quality. The presence of oxidized nitrogen and organic carbon are essential properties for denitrification to proceed. Denitrifying bacteria are composed of heterotrophic organisms. The most common denitrifying bacteria are Bacillus denitrijicans, Micrococcus denitrijicans and more. (Horan, 1989)Phosphorus removalThe anaerobic-oxic process (most commonly used), consists of a modified activated sludge system that includes an anaerobic upstream of the conventional aeration tank. During the anaerobic shape, inorganic the Tempter is released from the cells as a result of polyphosphate hydrolysis. The energy liberated is used for the uptake of BOD from wastewater. (Bitton, 2010)Removal efficiency is high when the BOD/phosphorus ratio exceeds 10. During the aerobic phase, soluble phosphorus is taken up by bacteria that synthesize polyphosphates using the energy released from BOD oxidation. The anaerobic-oxic process results in BOD removal and produces sludge which is bass in phosphor us. The key features of this process are the relatively low solid retention time and high organic loading rates. (Cheremisinoff, 1997)4.1.3 Anaerobic Digestion major applications of anaerobic digestion are the stabilization of concentrated sludges produced from the treatment of especially industrial wastes. The digestion is a complex biochemical process in which several groups of anaerobic and facultative organisms over again simultaneously absorb and break down organic matter and can be described as a two-phase process. In the first phase, acid-forming organisms convert the complex organic substrate to simple organic acids. Little change occurs in the total amount of organic material in the system, with decrease in ph . Second phase involves conversion of the organic acids to principally methane and carbon dioxide. The anaerobic process is essentially controlled by the methane producing bacteria. Methane formers are very sensitive to pH, substrate composition, and temperature. If the pH drops below 6,methane formation stops, and there is no decrease in organic gist of the sludge. One characteristic of the methane bacteria is that they are highly active in the mesophilic and thermophilic ranges. (Cheremisinoff, 1997)4.2 Solid Waste Treatment4.2.1 CompostingComposting is the biological decomposition and stabilization of organic substrates. Each gram of decaying compost contains millions of beneficial microorganisms that work to break down organic matter. Of the microorganisms present, 80 to 90 percent are bacteria, including actinomycetes and aerobic bacteria. oxidative are separated in three different varieties, each of which is active at different phases of the decomposition process. Psychrophilic bacteria (during winter) work on the initial organic matter, at temperatures around 12 degrees Celsius. These bacteria raise the temperature to 20 C, at which time, the mesophilic bacteria take over. These bacteria work at moderate to warm temperatures between 2 0 and 38 C. At 38 C, the thermophilic bacteria take over, raising the temperature to 70 C. Once this happens, the process starts over again with the addition of new materials. Actinomycete bacteria appear during the late stages of composting to clean up remaining materials that are difficult for aerobic bacteria to break down. They are responsible for breaking down cellulose, proteins, lignin and starches.ReferencesBitton G., (2010), Activated Sludge Process, in Wastewater Microbiology, 4th Edition, Hoboken, NJ, USA, John Wiley Sons, Inc.Boundless, (2016), Chemoautotrophs and Chemoheterotrophs, Boundless Microbiology, forthcoming from https//www.boundless.com/microbiology/textbooks/boundless-microbiology-textbook/microbial-metabolism-5/types-of-metabolism-41/chemoautotrophs-and-chemoheterotrophs-285-6153/, Accessed 13 January 2017Chattopadhyay M. and Sengupta D., (2013), Metabolism in bacteria at low temperature A recent study report., Biosciences, 31, 2, 157-165. open from https //www.researchgate.net/publication/236674848_Metabolism_in_bacteria_at_low_temperature_A_recent_report , Accessed 10 January 2017Cheremisinoff N. P., (1997), biotech for Industrial and municipal wastes, in Biotechnology for Waste and Wastewater Treatment, 1-36Darakas E., (2016), Environmental Engineering Process of water and wastewater treatment, Thessaloniki, Sofia Publisher.Horan N., (1989), Biological Wastewater Treatment Systems Theory and Operation., Chichester, England, Wiley Blackwell.Hurst, C.J. et al., (2002), Manual of Environmental Microbiology, second Edition, Washington, ASM Press.Kadner R. J. and Rogers K., (2015), Bacteria. Available from https//www.britannica.com/science/bacteria/Salt-and-water. Accessed 23 December 2017Lester, J.N. Birkett, J.W., (1999), Microbiology and Chemistry for Environmental Engineers, London, E. F.N. Spon.Maier, E.M. et al, (1999), Environnemental Microbiology, Academic PressSingleton P., (2005), Bacteria in Biology, Biotechnology and Me dicine, 6th Edition, Wileymetalworker S. R., (2016), Bacteria, Lecture Slides for the course of Microbiology for Environmental Engineering MSc of Environmental Engineering, London, violet College London.Traumann N. and Olynciw E., (1996), Compost Microorganisms, Cornell Waste Management Institue, New York, Available from http//compost.css.cornell.edu/microorg.html, Accessed 10 January 2017.Yates V. M., Nakatsu C. H., miller R. V., Pillai S. D., (2016), Manual of Environmental Microbiology, 4th Edition, ASM PressZeikus, J.G., (1979), Thermophilic bacteria ecology, physiology and technology., Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 1, 4, 243-252. Available from http//www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0141022979900437?via%3Dihub, Accessed 27 December 2016